Evolution of Legal Protection of Children
- S.M.Vijay
- 8 hours ago
- 18 min read
1. Introduction
The protection of children has historically been a matter of great social, moral, and legal concern. A child, by virtue of being in the formative stage of life, requires special safeguards and nurturing to ensure healthy physical, mental, and emotional development. Legal protection of children has evolved not only as a matter of national legislation but also as a global human rights discourse. Traditionally, children were often perceived as the property of their parents, with little recognition of their individuality or rights. However, with the emergence of modern legal systems, the focus gradually shifted towards recognising children as independent rights-holders deserving of care, dignity, and protection.
The trajectory of legal protection of children has been influenced by both international conventions and domestic legislations. The earliest attempts at international recognition can be traced to the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1924[1], which emphasised the moral responsibility of humanity towards children. This was followed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948[2], which recognised childhood as a stage requiring special assistance and care. The most comprehensive global framework, however, is the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989[3], which provided a holistic view of children’s civil, political, social, economic, and cultural rights. India, being a signatory to the CRC, has made significant strides in aligning its legal framework with the standards set by international law.
At the domestic level, the evolution of child protection laws in India can be seen through a range of legislations—ranging from the Indian Majority Act, 1875[4] defining the age of majority, to child labour legislations, juvenile justice mechanisms, and specific statutes like the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012[5]. Judicial interpretation has also played a crucial role in broadening the ambit of child rights by reading them into fundamental rights under the Constitution of India, especially Articles 14, 21, and 21A[6].
Despite these developments, challenges such as child labour, trafficking, abuse, and exploitation persist, making the evolution of legal protection a continuous process. It highlights the need for balancing punitive measures with rehabilitative and welfare-oriented approaches. The evolution of legal protection of children is therefore not just a matter of statutory enactments but also reflects a progressive shift in societal values—from viewing children as dependents to recognising them as individuals with enforceable rights.
2. Historical Evolution of Child Protection
The idea of protecting children has not emerged overnight; it is the outcome of centuries of evolving thought, law, and policy. Children have moved from being viewed as the private concern of their families to being recognised as holders of rights under both domestic and international law. This historical evolution can be better understood by dividing it into different stages—ancient, colonial, and modern legal developments.
2.1. Ancient and Traditional Perspectives
In ancient societies, children were often considered the property of their parents, particularly the father, with little recognition of their autonomy. In India, texts such as the Manusmriti and other Dharmashastra writings spoke of duties towards children but primarily in terms of lineage, inheritance, and moral upbringing rather than legal rights. Protection was seen more as a social or religious obligation than as a legally enforceable entitlement.
In Greek and Roman civilizations, children were similarly treated as dependents under the absolute authority of the paterfamilias. While these societies emphasised discipline, education, and morality, the concept of children having enforceable rights against abuse, exploitation, or neglect was virtually absent.
2.2. Early International Recognition
The first significant move towards recognising children as requiring special protection came after the devastation of the First World War. The Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1924[7] acknowledged for the first time at the international level that “mankind owes to the child the best it has to give.” Though brief, it was revolutionary because it placed responsibility on society and the State, and not just parents, for the welfare of children.
The momentum grew stronger after the Second World War. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948[8] marked a landmark moment, explicitly recognising in Article 25(2) that childhood requires special care and assistance. This was followed by the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1959, which set ten principles outlining children’s entitlement to education, protection, and welfare.
2.3. The Modern Era: The Convention on the Rights of the ChildThe most comprehensive international framework emerged with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 1989[9]. For the first time, children were treated as independent rights-holders rather than mere dependents. The CRC covers four broad categories of rights: survival, development, protection, and participation. Its legally binding nature compelled signatory states, including India, to harmonise their domestic laws with international obligations.
2.4. Colonial India and Early Legislations
During British rule in India, laws began to emerge in response to social reform movements. The Indian Majority Act, 1875[10] defined the legal age of majority. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929[11], also known as the Sarda Act, sought to prevent child marriages—a widespread practice at the time.Efforts to regulate child labour also began in the colonial period. The Factories Act, 1881[12] introduced restrictions on the working hours of children in factories, marking the beginning of legal recognition of child welfare in industrial settings. Although these laws were limited in scope, they signified the first steps towards state intervention in protecting children in India.
2.5. Post-Independence Legal Developments in India
After independence, India’s commitment to child protection was enshrined in the Constitution of India, 1950[13]. Fundamental Rights (Arts. 14, 21, and 21A) and Directive Principles (Arts. 39(e) and (f)) placed obligations on the State to protect children from exploitation and provide free and compulsory education.
Specific legislations were enacted to safeguard children’s interests. The Juvenile Justice Act, 1986 (later replaced by the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000 and 2015) provided a framework for dealing with children in conflict with law and those in need of care and protection. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 sought to restrict hazardous labour practices involving children. More recently, the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 (POCSO)[14] was introduced as a specialised law to address sexual offences against children.
Judicial decisions have further enriched this legal landscape. In Sheela Barse v. Union of India[15], the Supreme Court issued guidelines for the protection of children in custody, while in M.C. Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu[16], it prohibited employment of children in hazardous industries, reinforcing the constitutional mandate.
2.6. Contemporary Challenges: Despite progressive legal frameworks, children in India and across the world continue to face exploitation, trafficking, abuse, and neglect. The historical evolution of child protection highlights a gradual but significant shift from welfare-oriented measures to a rights-based approach. However, effective enforcement, awareness, and societal commitment remain crucial for ensuring that these protections move beyond paper to practical reality.
The historical evolution of child protection reflects humanity’s growing recognition of the vulnerability of children and the necessity of safeguarding their dignity and rights. From ancient cultural norms to international conventions and domestic legislations, the journey underscores a transformation in perception: children are no longer passive dependents but individuals entitled to justice, equality, and protection under law.
3. International Development of Child Protection Laws
The international community’s concern for the welfare of children has evolved through gradual recognition of their vulnerability and special needs. The development of international child protection laws reflects both humanitarian responses to historical crises and progressive articulation of children’s rights as distinct from those of adults. This journey can be traced through early declarations, binding conventions, and specialised treaties under the aegis of the United Nations and other international bodies.
3.1. Early Declarations and the League of Nations
The first formal recognition of children’s unique needs came after the First World War. The devastation of war left thousands of children orphaned, displaced, and impoverished. This led to the adoption of the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1924[17], under the League of Nations. Although not legally binding, the declaration was path-breaking as it emphasised that humanity owed to the child the best it had to give. It shifted responsibility from solely the family to society and the Stat
3.2.The Post-War Framework under the United Nations
Following the Second World War, the newly created United Nations gave renewed attention to human rights, including children’s rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948[18] recognised in Article 25(2) that motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. This was a significant acknowledgment of the child’s need for distinct protection in the broader human rights discourse.Building on this, the UN adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1959[19]. It laid down ten guiding principles, including the right to a name and nationality, the right to education, and the right to be protected from neglect and exploitation. While the declaration lacked binding force, it provided the foundation for subsequent legal instruments.
3.3. The Landmark Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
The Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989[20] remains the cornerstone of international child protection law. It transformed the normative framework by treating children not merely as beneficiaries of welfare but as subjects of enforceable rights. The CRC incorporates civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights, grouped under four broad pillars: survival, development, protection, and participation.The CRC’s legally binding nature compels States Parties to align domestic law and policy with its provisions. It also established monitoring mechanisms, such as the Committee on the Rights of the Child, to ensure compliance. As the most widely ratified human rights treaty in history, the CRC represents a universal consensus on the primacy of children’s rights.
3.4. Supplementary Protocols and Thematic Conventions
The CRC was further strengthened by Optional Protocols—the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, 2000[21], and the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, 2000[22]. These instruments addressed specific areas of grave concern.Parallel developments occurred under the International Labour Organization (ILO). Conventions such as ILO Convention No. 138 on Minimum Age, 1973[23], and ILO Convention No. 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour, 1999[24], created binding obligations on states to prohibit hazardous labour and progressively eliminate child exploitation.UNICEF also played a vital role in advocacy, research, and implementation, ensuring that legal standards translated into practical policies. Its work reinforced the shift from welfare-based approaches to a rights-based framework.
3.5.Regional Instruments and Judicial Recognition
In addition to global treaties, regional frameworks have emerged. The European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights, 1996, the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, 1990, and the American Convention on Human Rights include specific provisions to safeguard child rights in their respective jurisdictions. These instruments illustrate that international development is not uniform but influenced by regional socio-political realities.International tribunals and human rights bodies have also reinforced children’s rights. For instance, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has emphasised children’s right to family life, while the European Court of Human Rights has ruled on cases involving education, protection from abuse, and juvenile justice. These judicial interpretations ensure that conventions remain living instruments.
The international development of child protection laws demonstrates an evolving recognition of children as independent rights-holders. Beginning with moral declarations and culminating in legally binding treaties like the CRC, this evolution reflects a collective global effort to address children’s vulnerabilities. The CRC and its supplementary protocols, ILO conventions, and regional charters embody a rights-based paradigm. However, enforcement gaps, socio-economic inequalities, and cultural practices remain challenges that require continued global commitment. The trajectory underscores that the protection of children is not a static achievement but an ongoing responsibility of the international community.
4. Legal Framework for Child Protection in India
Child protection in India is not confined to a single statute but is a composite framework of constitutional provisions, statutory enactments, judicial pronouncements, and policy measures. The Indian legal system recognises children as a vulnerable group requiring special safeguards for their survival, development, and dignity. The framework is informed by both international commitments, such as the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and domestic imperatives rooted in social realities.
4.1.Constitutional Provisions
The Constitution of India, 1950[25] provides the bedrock for child protection. Children enjoy equality before the law and equal protection under Article 14. Article 21 guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which has been judicially expanded to include the right to live with dignity, health, and protection from exploitation. A landmark amendment introduced Article 21A, guaranteeing free and compulsory education to all children between 6 and 14 years. The Directive Principles of State Policy also include explicit child-centric mandates: Article 39(e) requires that children are not forced into hazardous employment, while Article 39(f) directs the State to ensure opportunities for the development of children in conditions of freedom and dignity. Further, Article 45 obligates the State to provide early childhood care and education for children below six years. These constitutional guarantees, though non-justiciable in some cases, guide legislative and judicial efforts in shaping India’s child protection regime.
4.2.Statutory Enactments:
Several statutes operationalise these constitutional principles. Among the most significant are:(a) Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015
This Act[26] provides a comprehensive mechanism for children in conflict with law and children in need of care and protection. It introduces child-friendly procedures, child welfare committees, and rehabilitation measures. A controversial feature of the 2015 Act is the provision allowing juveniles aged 16–18 to be tried as adults for heinous offences.
(b) Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986
Amended in 2016[27], this Act prohibits the employment of children below 14 years in all occupations and adolescents (14–18 years) in hazardous processes. It provides for penalties against employers and recognises the need for rehabilitation and education of rescued children.
(c) Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012
The POCSO Act[28] is a gender-neutral law that criminalises a wide range of sexual offences against children, including harassment, pornography, and exploitation. It mandates child-friendly investigation and trial processes, with in-camera proceedings and prohibition on aggressive cross-examination.
(d) Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006
Replacing the 1929 law, this Act[29] prescribes 18 years as the minimum age for women and 21 years for men. It makes child marriages voidable at the option of the contracting party and provides for punishment of those who perform, promote, or permit such marriages.
(e) Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
This Act[30] operationalises Article 21A, making education a fundamental right. It prescribes norms for schools, teacher qualifications, and prohibits physical punishment, discrimination, and denial of admission.
(f) Other Relevant Legislations
Other statutes contributing to child protection include the Factories Act, 1948, the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956, and the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956. Together, they address diverse aspects of child welfare such as labour, trafficking, adoption, and maintenance.
4.3.Judicial Interpretation : Indian courts have played a proactive role in expanding child protection. In Sheela Barse v. Union of India[31], the Supreme Court issued directions to safeguard children in custodial institutions, emphasising the need for humane treatment. In M.C. Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu[32], the Court prohibited child labour in hazardous industries and directed measures for their education and rehabilitation.Similarly, in Gaurav Jain v. Union of India[33], the Court recognised the rights of children of sex workers to education and dignity. In Unni Krishnan v. State of Andhra Pradesh[34], the Supreme Court read the right to education into Article 21, paving the way for Article 21A.Judicial creativity has thus been instrumental in ensuring that constitutional ideals are not reduced to mere rhetoric but translated into enforceable entitlements.
4.4.Policy and Institutional Framework : India has also adopted policies and institutional mechanisms to supplement legal protections. The National Policy for Children, 2013[35] affirms the State’s commitment to protect children’s rights to survival, health, education, and protection from abuse and exploitation. The Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS) provides financial and technical assistance for child protection services across states.The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR), established under the Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005[36], monitors implementation of child laws and policies. State Commissions for Protection of Child Rights perform similar functions at the state level.
4.5.Continuing ChallengesDespite an elaborate framework, challenges persist. Child labour, trafficking, abuse, and child marriage remain rampant, often due to poverty, lack of awareness, and weak enforcement. Reports of delays in POCSO trials, misuse of provisions, and inadequate rehabilitation measures reveal systemic gaps. The effectiveness of child protection laws thus depends not only on legislative clarity but also on robust implementation, awareness, and sensitivity of enforcement agencies.
The legal framework for child protection in India reflects a dynamic interplay of constitutional vision, legislative measures, and judicial innovation. While significant progress has been made in recognising children as rights-holders, effective enforcement and societal change are essential to translate legal provisions into lived realities. Child protection in India, therefore, remains an evolving process, one that requires vigilance, compassion, and continuous reform.
5. Comparative Perspectives
5.1. Child Protection in Developed Nations: Developed countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom have historically advanced robust frameworks for child protection. In the United States, the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, 1974 (CAPTA)[37] was a landmark legislation establishing federal standards for reporting, investigating, and addressing abuse. The U.S. also integrates welfare and juvenile justice through state-level mechanisms, ensuring community-based support and preventive care. Similarly, the United Kingdom has relied on the Children Act, 1989[38], which consolidated child protection law by emphasizing the “best interests of the child” principle. The Act shifted the focus from punitive intervention to welfare and rights-based approaches, requiring local authorities to safeguard children at risk.
5.2. Child Protection in Developing Nations : In contrast, developing countries often face resource limitations, weaker enforcement, and entrenched socio-cultural practices that impede child rights. For example, in South Africa, while the Children’s Act, 2005[39] reflects constitutional guarantees of dignity and protection, challenges such as poverty, HIV/AIDS, and trafficking remain critical barriers to implementation. Similarly, in Bangladesh, child labour persists despite ratification of international treaties and enactment of the Children Act, 2013[40], pointing to gaps between law and ground realities.
5.3. Regional Cooperation and Common Challenges: Across jurisdictions, a common thread emerges: the influence of international conventions. Most countries, whether developed or developing, have incorporated the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989[41] into their domestic legal systems, though with varying degrees of success. Developed nations tend to focus on institutional safeguards, preventive care, and structured reporting mechanisms, whereas developing nations struggle with enforcement, resource allocation, and awareness. Issues such as trafficking, child labour, and digital exploitation cut across borders, highlighting the need for international cooperation.A comparative analysis suggests that India can draw lessons from developed jurisdictions in strengthening institutional frameworks such as specialized child protection agencies and mandatory reporting systems. At the same time, India shares challenges with developing countries—such as child labour, early marriage, and poverty—which require integrated socio-legal responses. Comparative perspectives underline that effective child protection is not merely a question of law but also of political will, resources, and societal commitment.
6. Contemporary Challenges and Gaps
6.1. Child Labour and Economic Exploitation : Despite constitutional guarantees and statutory prohibitions, child labour remains a pervasive challenge in India and across the globe. The persistence of child labour is deeply tied to poverty, lack of educational opportunities, and inadequate enforcement of laws. While the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, as amended in 2016[42], prohibits employment of children below 14 years in hazardous occupations, loopholes such as allowing children to work in family enterprises continue to undermine the effectiveness of the law. This not only perpetuates cycles of poverty but also compromises children’s health and educational development.
6.2. Child Sexual Abuse and Digital Exploitation: The enactment of the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012[43] was a landmark step in addressing child sexual abuse. However, challenges remain in terms of under-reporting due to social stigma, lack of child-friendly investigation procedures, and delay in trial processes. Additionally, the rise of digital technologies has created new avenues of exploitation, including online grooming, pornography, and trafficking through the dark web. Current frameworks, including the Information Technology Act, 2000[44], lack comprehensive provisions to tackle the evolving dimensions of cyber-crimes against children.
6.3. Gaps in Juvenile Justice and Rehabilitation : The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015[45] aims to balance child protection with accountability. However, practical difficulties persist, such as inadequate infrastructure in juvenile homes, lack of trained personnel, and inconsistent application across states. Moreover, the controversial provision allowing juveniles aged 16–18 to be tried as adults for heinous offences raises concerns about rehabilitation and restorative justice. This gap underscores the tension between societal demand for retribution and the principle of treating children as reformable individuals.
6.4. Implementation Deficits and Institutional Weakness: Another significant gap lies in the weak implementation of existing laws. India has multiple schemes, such as the Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS), yet bureaucratic delays, poor coordination between agencies, and shortage of resources hinder effectiveness. Moreover, the absence of a robust monitoring mechanism leads to disparity in outcomes across states. Even though India has ratified international treaties like the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989[46], compliance often remains more on paper than in practice.
6.5. Socio-Cultural Barriers: Finally, socio-cultural practices such as early marriage, gender discrimination, and preference for child labour in low-income households exacerbate child rights violations. These issues reveal that legal measures alone cannot address child protection unless accompanied by awareness campaigns, poverty alleviation programs, and community participation.
7. Reforms and Recommendations
7.1. Strengthening Legal and Institutional Frameworks: There is an urgent need to close existing loopholes in child protection laws. For instance, the exemption under the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, as amended in 2016[47], allowing children to work in family enterprises, should be reconsidered, as it indirectly legitimizes exploitation. Similarly, stricter provisions under the Information Technology Act, 2000[48] must be incorporated to combat online exploitation, grooming, and trafficking of children.
7.2. Improving Implementation and Capacity Building: Legal reforms must be accompanied by effective implementation. The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015[49] and the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012[50] require better-trained police officers, social workers, and judicial staff to create a truly child-friendly system. Capacity building of child welfare committees, NGOs, and other stakeholders is equally essential.
7.3. Socio-Economic and Educational Interventions : Legal protection should go hand in hand with socio-economic reforms. Poverty alleviation programs, universal access to quality education, and awareness campaigns at the grassroots level can help reduce child labour, early marriage, and gender-based discrimination. India’s compliance with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989[51] must be more substantive, focusing on preventive and rehabilitative approaches rather than reactive measures alone.
7.4. Community and Technological Participation
Finally, community-based monitoring mechanisms and the use of technology—such as helplines, child protection apps, and AI-based monitoring of online crimes—can enhance the protection ecosystem. Reforms should not only address legal gaps but also empower children, families, and communities to act as active stakeholders in safeguarding rights.
8. Conclusion
The protection of children is not simply a matter of legal obligation but a reflection of how society values its future generations. Over time, the journey of child protection has moved from paternalistic approaches to a rights-based framework that recognises children as individuals with dignity, voice, and agency. This shift highlights the growing awareness that children require more than sympathy—they require enforceable rights backed by strong institutions and effective implementation.
Despite progressive laws and international commitments, challenges such as child labour, abuse, trafficking, and digital exploitation remain pressing. These issues underline the gap between legislation and ground realities, showing that drafting laws is only the first step. True protection demands proper enforcement, adequate resources, trained personnel, and active community participation.
A child’s safety and development cannot be secured by the state alone. Families, schools, local communities, and civil society must all work together to create an environment where children are free from harm and able to flourish. The task of safeguarding children is, therefore, a shared responsibility—one that requires compassion, vigilance, and constant reform. Protecting children today ensures not just their well-being but the building of a more just, humane, and secure society for tomorrow.
[1] Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1924.
[2] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, Art. 25(2).
[3] United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989, UNGA Res. 44/25.
[4] The Indian Majority Act, 1875.
[5] Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012.
[6] Constitution of India, Arts. 14, 21, 21A.
[7] Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1924.
[8] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, Art. 25(2).
[9] United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989, UNGA Res. 44/25.
[10] The Indian Majority Act, 1875.
[11] The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929.
[12] The Factories Act, 1881.
[13] Constitution of India, Arts. 14, 21, 21A, 39(e) & (f).
[14] Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012.
[15] Sheela Barse v. Union of India, (1986) 3 SCC 596.
[16] M.C. Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu, (1996) 6 SCC 756.
[17] Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1924.
[18] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, Art. 25(2).
[19] Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1959.
[20] United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989, UNGA Res. 44/25.
[21] Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, 2000.
[22] Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, 2000.
[23] International Labour Organization, Minimum Age Convention (No. 138), 1973.
[24] International Labour Organization, Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (No. 182), 1999.
[25] The Constitution of India, 1950, Arts. 14, 21, 21A, 39(e), 39(f), 45.
[26] Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015.
[27] Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, amended by Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016.
[28] Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012.
[29] Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006.
[30] Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.
[31] Sheela Barse v. Union of India, (1986) 3 SCC 596.
[32] M.C. Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu, (1996) 6 SCC 756.
[33] Gaurav Jain v. Union of India, (1997) 8 SCC 114.
[34] Unni Krishnan, J.P. v. State of Andhra Pradesh, (1993) 1 SCC 645.
[35] National Policy for Children, 2013, Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India.
[36] Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005.
[37] Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, 1974, United States Public Law 93-247.
[38] Children Act, 1989 (United Kingdom).
[39] Children’s Act, 2005 (South Africa).
[40] Children Act, 2013 (Bangladesh).
[41] United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989, UNGA Res. 44/25.
[42] Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, amended by the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016.
[43] Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012.
[44] Information Technology Act, 2000.
[45] Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015.
[46] United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989, UNGA Res. 44/25.
[47] Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, amended by the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016.
[48] Information Technology Act, 2000.
[49] Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015.
[50] Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012.
[51] United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989, UNGA Res. 44/25.
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